Discourse on the Origin of Inequality

Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s essay explores why human beings are unequal and whether this inequality is “natural” or something we created ourselves. He argues that to understand why society is the way it is today, we have to imagine how humans lived before laws, cities, and property existed.

The Two Types of Inequality

Rousseau says there are two kinds of inequality:

1. Natural (Physical) Inequality: This includes differences we are born with, like age, health, and body strength.

2. Moral (Political) Inequality: This includes differences created by society, such as being richer, more powerful, or more honored than others.

Part 1: The “Natural Man” (The State of Nature)

Rousseau asks us to imagine humans in their original state. He describes them as “savages” who lived like animals but were very well-organized.

1. Simple and Healthy: These early humans were strong and robust because they lived outdoors and had to defend themselves. They didn’t get “civilized” diseases caused by stress or bad food.

2. No Worries: Their only needs were food, a mate, and sleep. They didn’t worry about the future and didn’t even understand what death was.

3. Natural Compassion: Rousseau believes humans are naturally good. Even before laws, humans had a natural feeling called pity or compassion, which made them dislike seeing other living things suffer.

4. The Problem of “Perfectibility“: Unlike animals, humans have the ability to choose (free will) and the ability to improve themselves (“perfectibility”). Rousseau argues that this ability to learn is actually the source of all our misfortunes because it eventually pushed us out of our happy, simple lives.

Part 2: How Society and Inequality Began

Rousseau explains that society didn’t happen all at once. It was a slow process of “accidents” and changes.

1. The Invention of Property: The biggest turning point was the first person who fenced off a piece of land and said, “This is mine”. Once people believed him, “civil society” was born.

2. The Rise of Vanity: As people started living in huts and families, they began to gather together. They started comparing themselves to others—who was the best singer, the strongest, or the most handsome?. This led to vanity, envy, and shame.

3. Technology and Work: The invention of iron and corn (metallurgy and agriculture) changed everything. To farm land or work with metal, people had to work together, which led to some people owning more than others. This destroyed equality forever.

4. The “Trick” of the Rich: As people fought over property, life became a “horrible state of war”. The rich, fearing they would lose their wealth, tricked the poor into joining them to create laws and government. They promised these laws would protect everyone, but they actually just protected the property of the rich and made the poor work forever.

The Conclusion: A World of “Artificial Men”

By the end of the essay, Rousseau says society has turned us into “artificial men” with “factitious passions”.

1. Living for Others: While the natural man lived within himself and was happy, the civilized man lives only in the opinion of others. We care more about appearing happy or successful than actually being happy.

2. The Final Stage: He warns that society eventually leads to despotism (tyranny), where a master treats everyone else like slaves. At this point, everyone becomes “equal” again—but only because they are all worth nothing under the tyrant.

Rousseau concludes that it is against the law of nature for a handful of people to be loaded with luxuries while the “starving multitude” lacks the basic necessities of life.